Ghosts in Ancient Buddhist Asia
The shadows of the past often linger, whispering secrets that have echoed through the ages. In the vast and diverse continent of Asia, the realm of the supernatural has long been intertwined with the fabric of cultural traditions and beliefs. From the snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas to the sun-drenched shores of the Pacific, ancient ghost stories have captivated the imaginations of people for centuries, offering a glimpse into the mysteries that lie beyond the veil of the physical world. The huge area that encompasses the land known as Asia is full of different traditions within different countries and spans thousands of years of written and oral histories. Journey through the rich tapestry of Asian ghost lore, uncovering the origins, themes, and legacies of these haunting tales. Uncover the deep-rooted connections between the living and the dead.
Religion
In Buddhism, the idea of ghosts came up around the time of the belief of the space in which souls reside between a person’s death and reincarnation. In both Buddhism and Taoism the idea that hungry ghosts can either be created if the dead is neglected and/or deserted by descendants or, according to the Hua-yen Sutra, if they commit evil deeds like killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct (Baroni 1995, Venerable Yin-shun 1998).
In the Buddhist tradition, there are stories from Chuan-chi po-yuan ching ("Sutra of One Hundred Selected Legends") that are from the early third century (Eberhardt 1958). Some examples of these stories are as follows:
One day a monk visited the house of a rich sugar-cane juice seller to get some juice to cure an illness. The seller was busy elsewhere so he got his wife to give the monk the drink. She decided not to and instead urinated in the monk's bowl, added a bit of sugar-cane juice, and gave it to the monk. He wasn’t fooled so he poured out the pee mix and left. Eventually, when she died her actions made her become a hungry ghost. (Eberhardt 1958)
Another story also has a monk visiting a house begging for food. The man was kind, and though he had to leave for some reason, he told his wife to give him some food. For some reason, she decided to “teach him a lesson” and locked the monk in an empty room without any food. She was reborn as a hungry ghost, too, “for innumerable lifetimes” (Eberhardt 1958).
The Buddhist tradition comes from Kuei wen mu-lien ching ("The Sutra on the Ghosts Questioning Mu-lien") is about a male diviner who constantly lied to people and is now a hungry ghost (Eberhard 1998).
A story in "The Legend of Mu-lien Entering the City and Seeing Five Hundred Hungry Ghosts". It’s about five hundred sons of elders of the city they lived in. When monks came to the city, begging for food, the sons denied them because they thought the monks would keep coming back and eventually take all their food. As with the other stories, after the sons died they were reborn as hungry ghosts. (Eberhard 1998).
Though I gave two examples with both males and females, most of the hungry ghost legends are about the punishments for greedy women who refused to give away food or water and generally monks are the ones denied (Eberhardt 1958). The last bit of this makes sense, as monks are religious people who traveled around the country without worldly possessions, so they would beg for food from kind strangers. I’m left wondering, why is it mostly women? Just thinking about the more recent stories/movies that I know of are almost always about murderous ghosts of vengeful women murdering strangers after dying a violent death, as in Ringu (The Ring) and Ju-on (The Grudge) and their sequels.
In Buddhism, the concept of "hungry ghosts," or "preta," represents beings that are driven by intense cravings and insatiable desires. These spectral entities are often depicted as having small mouths and large bellies, symbolizing their perpetual state of hunger that can never be satisfied. The creation of hungry ghosts is rooted in various factors, including karma, attachment, and the nature of desire, all of which are integral to Buddhist teachings on the afterlife.
Buddhism spread across South and Southeast Asia during the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE (Lahiri, 2015). Ashoka, known as the ideal Buddhist king, installed rock edicts and built stupas in the Hazara region, now part of Pakistan (Muhammad Zahoor et al., 2024). The expansion of Buddhism is often presented in mythic terms, with local histories connecting it to Buddha's prophecies and Ashoka's efforts (Berkwitz, 2011). In Sri Lanka, Buddhism was introduced by Arahat Mahinda in the 3rd century BCE, leading to the establishment of a Buddhist education system (Ranasinghe, 2008). This system facilitated the oral transmission of the Tripitaka and its commentaries for centuries. In the 1st century BCE, these scriptures were written down and stored in Mahavihara centers, marking the origin of libraries in Sri Lanka. These libraries played a crucial role in preserving and disseminating Buddhist texts, attracting foreign scholars to the country (Ranasinghe, 2008).
It had already started to spread across East Asia and made its way into the far reaches of the Mauryan <an Indian empire from c. 321-185 BCE> which stretched out from the Himalayas in the north to almost Sri Lanka in the south (Kitagawa 2023).
Karma and Attachment
Hungry ghosts are often seen as a manifestation of negative karma accumulated during one's life. Individuals who were particularly greedy, selfish, or attached to material possessions may find themselves reborn as hungry ghosts. In this context, the actions and intentions throughout one’s life directly influence the conditions of rebirth. The transformation into a hungry ghost serves as a cautionary tale about the consequences of living a life overrun by desires and attachments, emphasizing the importance of ethical conduct and moderation.
Hungry ghosts, often depicted in various cultures around the globe as ethereal and spectral beings craving nourishment, symbolize the negative karma that accumulates from a life steeped in unbridled greed, selfishness, and a deeply ingrained attachment to material possessions and wealth. Those who prioritize their insatiable desires over ethical conduct, ignoring the needs and well-being of others, may find themselves reborn in this suffering form, forever yearning for fulfilment yet tragically unable to attain it. This haunting transformation serves as a powerful and sobering reminder of the profound consequences faced when one lives solely for personal gain, starkly highlighting the moral imperative to practice moderation and mindfulness, and to cultivate genuine compassion in our daily lives. By deeply understanding the plight of hungry ghosts, we can reflect thoughtfully on our actions and make conscious choices that foster a healthier relationship with our desires and the wider world.
Cultural Importance
Hungry ghosts play a significant role in cultural practices, particularly during festivals like the Ghost Festival or Obon, observed in various Buddhist cultures. During these occasions, rituals are performed to appease the spirits of the dead, including offerings of food, incense, and prayers. These acts are believed to ease the suffering of hungry ghosts and help them find peace. This reinforces the communal bonds and the connection between the living and the dead, showcasing the importance of remembrance and compassion.
Hungry ghosts, often depicted in various cultural narratives, symbolize the suffering of souls that have not found peace after death. These entities play a central role in traditions such as the Ghost Festival in Chinese cultures and Obon in Japan, where rituals are specifically designed to honor and appease these restless spirits. During these festivals, families prepare altars adorned with offerings of food, incense, and other items cherished by the deceased in life. This practice serves multiple purposes: it is a gesture of remembrance, a means of showing compassion, and a way to strengthen the ties between the living and the departed. The act of offering food symbolizes not just the act of giving, but also a profound acknowledgement of the hunger—both physical and spiritual—that these spirits experience. By engaging in these rituals, communities reinforce their collective identity and values centred on respect for ancestors and the belief in caring for those who have passed. During Ghost Festival, for instance, the streets come alive with vibrant displays and communal gatherings, highlighting a shared commitment to honouring those who came before.
In the context of Obon, the lanterns that guide spirits back to their resting places symbolize hope and the enduring connection between the worlds of the living and the dead. These rituals serve as a reminder of the importance of compassion in human experience, not just towards the deceased, but within the community itself. As society continues to evolve, the enduring themes of remembrance and compassion remain vital. Celebrating ancestors through the lens of hungry ghosts allows individuals to reflect on their legacy, fostering a deep appreciation for life and the connections that bind all people—past, present, and future. In this way, the practices surrounding hungry ghosts encapsulate a broader cultural ethos that emphasizes empathy, solidarity, and the transcendent nature of love across the boundaries of life and death.
The Afterlife and Spiritual Development
The belief in hungry ghosts highlights broader Buddhist concepts regarding the afterlife and the cycle of samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth). It serves as a reminder that one’s spiritual development is crucial in transcending the cycle. By understanding the conditions that lead to becoming a hungry ghost, practitioners are encouraged to cultivate virtues such as generosity, kindness, and mindfulness. This pursuit of enlightenment not only benefits the individual’s own journey but fosters communal harmony and collective well-being.
Symbolism and Lessons
Hungry ghosts also embody the universal human experiences of desire and dissatisfaction. They remind individuals of the consequences of unchecked desires, serving as symbols in Buddhist teachings that illuminate the path toward liberation. Through this lens, hungry ghosts are not merely figures of folklore but vital aspects of the moral and philosophical framework within Buddhism. The concept of hungry ghosts serves as a symbol reflecting human experiences of desire and dissatisfaction. These entities, often depicted with swollen bellies and thin necks, symbolize insatiable cravings that drive individuals toward suffering. In Buddhism, hungry ghosts are not merely figures of folklore; they embody essential truths about the nature of desire and the consequences of unchecked appetites.
Hungry ghosts remind us that desire, if left unchecked, can lead to an unending cycle of suffering. Their insatiable hunger represents the profound disconnect between wants and fulfilment. This aspect compels individuals to reflect on their impulses and the ephemeral nature of gratification. The visual imagery of a hungry ghost can evoke a sense of empathy, inviting observers to ponder their own relationship with desire and how it manifests in their lives. Additionally, these figures serve a critical role in Buddhist teachings by illuminating the path toward liberation. The hungry ghost realm is one of the six realms of existence in Buddhist cosmology, illustrating the consequences of a life led by craving. This recognition fosters a deeper understanding of karma and the cycle of rebirth—what you create through your actions shapes your existence.
In teaching practitioners to acknowledge their desires without becoming enslaved by them, the symbolism of hungry ghosts encourages mindfulness and self-awareness. It reminds individuals to confront their cravings, cultivate compassion, and develop wisdom. Ultimately, embracing the lessons represented by hungry ghosts can inspire a journey toward balance and spiritual liberation, turning the figure of the hungry ghost from a source of fear into a catalyst for personal growth and enlightenment. As a profound symbol in Buddhist culture, they represent the consequences of desire and attachment while underscoring the significance of moral integrity in one’s life. Their narratives encourage reflection on the nature of existence, the afterlife, and the interconnectedness of all beings—a core tenet of Buddhist philosophy.
Continuously, there seems to be a debate, about whether the “witchcraft” practices left in these cultural areas were actually left over from “pagan” times and whether Buddhism brought a more “enlightened age”. Or if Buddhism brought a lot of these ideas with it, or even a mixture of the two. The relationship between Buddhism and pre-existing spiritual practices in Asia is complex and multifaceted. Early Buddhist monks and nuns often retained beliefs in local deities and spirits, incorporating them into their new faith (DeCaroli, 2004). This integration of popular religions with Buddhism continued as it spread, as evidenced by the cult of Upagupta in Southeast Asia (Strong, 1992). However, the interaction between Buddhism and local practices was not always harmonious. Some forms of tantrism, which blended spiritual and sexual elements, were viewed as heretical by mainstream Buddhist authorities (Sanford, 1991). In contemporary India, practices labeled as "witchcraft" persist among Dalit and Adivasi communities, reflecting complex intersections of gender, caste, class, and spirituality (Brunnekreef, 2023). These practices challenge simplistic narratives of Buddhism bringing an "enlightened age" and instead suggest a more nuanced interplay between Buddhist ideas and pre-existing spiritual traditions.
Ancient Chinese beliefs in ghosts and spirits were deeply rooted in their cultural and religious landscape, influencing social order, political legitimacy, and cosmological understanding (Hu, 2020). These beliefs were not unique to China, as similarities in afterlife concepts were found across early civilizations, including Egypt, Sumer, and Mesoamerica (Shushan, 2017). In ancient China, ghosts were considered serious entities capable of affecting life and death, prompting efforts to classify and understand them within philosophical and cosmological frameworks (Poo, 2022). While specific ghost beliefs varied across East Asian cultures, they shared common influences from Confucianism, which emphasized male dominance (Ma et al., 2022). However, each country developed its own unique interpretations of these beliefs, shaped by cultural, historical, and social factors. The study of ghost beliefs in ancient societies provides valuable insights into religious practices, literary imagination, and social dynamics of the time (Poo, 2022).
Ghost beliefs still vary significantly across East Asian cultures. In China, people generally fear ghosts, while in Japan, ghosts are often viewed positively, playing roles in local festivals (Wang, 2005). Japanese ghost culture, influenced by Chinese Buddhism and Taoism, differs from Chinese ghost culture (Wang, 2005). In East Asian cinema, ghosts are not always portrayed as fearsome but can be depicted as lovers, heroes, or objects of pity (Martin, 2021). Cultural differences in ghost beliefs can impact travel decisions, particularly in disaster-hit destinations (Rittichainuwat, 2010). In Southeast Asia, Chinese travel books from the 12th-14th centuries describe beliefs in flying heads that feast on fish or human entrails, practices later confirmed by ethnographic studies (Drège, 2015). These legends, originating in southern China, later spread to Japan, contributing to the ghost story genre (Drège, 2015). These diverse ghost beliefs reflect cultural variations across East Asian countries.
Work Cited and Further Reading
Baozhu, H. (2020). Believing in ghosts and spirits: the concept of gui in ancient China. Routledge.
Baroni, Helen J. Ph.D. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated: 2002.
Berkwitz, S.C. (2011). The Expansion of Buddhism in South and Southeast Asia.
Brunnekreef, J. (2023). “The Witch’s Mirror”: A Review of Scholarship on Witchcraft and a Reassessment Based on the Intersectional Lived Experiences of Dalits and Adivasis. Religions.
Eberhard, Stephen F. The Ghost Festival in Medieval China. New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 1988. Hungry ghosts, by contrast, are a much more exceptional case, and would only occur in very unfortunate circumstances, such as if a whole family were killed or when a family no longer venerated their ancestors.
Eberhardt, Wolfram. Chinese Festivals. New York: Abelard-Schuman Ltd.: 1958.
Gregory, Peter N., ed. Inquiry Into the Origin of Humanity. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press: 1995.
Kitagawa, J. M. , Nakamura, . Hajime , Snellgrove, . David Llewelyn , Reynolds, . Frank E. , Lopez, . Donald S. and Tucci, . Giuseppe (2023, March 14). Buddhism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism
Lahiri, N. (2015). Ashoka in ancient India. Harvard University Press.
Ma, G., Yang, C., Qin, Z., & Guo, M. (2021, December). Hegemonic Masculinity in East Asia: China, South Korea and Japan. In 2021 4th International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2021) (pp. 2405-2410). Atlantis Press.
Oldstone-Moore, Jennifer. Taoism. USA: Oxford University Press: 2003.
Poo, M. C., & Pu, M. (2022). Ghosts and religious life in early China. Cambridge University Press.
Ranasinghe, R. H. I. S. (2008). How Buddhism influenced the origin and development of libraries in Sri Lanka (Ceylon): From the third century BC to the fifth century AD. library history, 24(4), 307-312.
Sanford, J.H. (1991). The Abominable Tachikawa Skull Ritual. Monumenta Nipponica, 46, 1-20.
Shushan, G. (2017). The afterlife in early civilizations. The Palgrave handbook of the afterlife, 21-40.
Strong, J.S. (1992). The Legend and Cult of Upagupta: Sanskrit Buddhism in North India and Southeast Asia.
Venerable Yin-shun. The Way to Buddhahood. Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications: 1998.
Zahoor, M., Shakirullah, ., Zahoor, H.M., & Naveed, U. (2024). Reconstructing the Buddhist’s Monastic Society in Hazara from the 3rd Century BC to 5th Century CE: An Archaeological and Historical Approach. Central Asia.
